IFF)Figure S2 Distribution of time intervals below ubiquitination threshold. Frequency

IFF)Figure S2 Distribution of time intervals beneath ubiquitination threshold. Frequency distribution of time intervals spent under a threshold of 100 ubiquitin for the cooperatively coupled five-site model with one hundred peroxisomes and Ccargo 29000s{1 . Data is taken for one simulated minute. A characteristic bimodal distribution is seen. (TIFF)Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: AIB PKK ADR. Performed the experiments: AIB. Analyzed the data: AIB. Contributed reagents/ materials/analysis tools: ADR. Wrote the paper: AIB PKK ADR.Supporting InformationFigure S1 Allowing multiple ubiquitin per importomer, with cooperative coupling. We generally impose a restriction
Mannitol is a six-carbon non-cyclic sugar alcohol which appears to be widespread in the biosphere, with the noticeable exception of the animal kingdom. This polyol (i.e., alcohol containing multiple hydroxyl groups) is ubiquitous throughout the fungal kingdom and is considered as being the most abundant of all soluble carbohydrates within mycelia and fruit bodies (Lewis and Smith, 1967; Horer et al., 2001; Dulermo et al., 2009). In fungi, mannitol and its metabolism have been postulated to have a multitude of functions as either a carbohydrate reserve, in NADPH regeneration, in morphogenesis and conidiation or as a protection from environmental stress (Solomon et al., 2007). Furthermore, some studies have reported that mannitol has a role in pathogenicity of plant and animal pathogens (Chaturvedi et al., 1996a; Velez et al., 2008). Levels of mannitol were found to rise dramatically during plant infection by biotrophic or necrotrophic fungi and this accumulation was accompanied by increased expression of genes involved in the mannitol pathway (Voegele et al., 2005; Jobic et al., 2007; Dulermo et al., 2009). Two hypotheses mainly emerged to explain the pathogenic significance of mannitol production by fungi. Firstly, fungal mannitol may be involved in the sequestration of carbohydrates fromhost. Since many plants are unable to metabolize mannitol, the conversion of plant hexoses into mannitol seems an ideal strategy for the fungal pathogen or mutualist, providing a means for fungi to store carbohydrates and reducing power in a form not accessible to the host (Ceccaroli et al.Bethanechol chloride , 2003; Dulermo et al.Protirelin , 2009).PMID:24238415 As in planta mannitol accumulation mainly occurred when conidiophores emerged, the latter authors suggest that this polyol could be necessary for spore survival or germination. Similar conclusions were suggested in the case of the biotrophic interaction between the rust fungus Uromyces fabae and its host plant Vicia faba, or during pathogenesis of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, a B. cinerea-related necrotroph (Voegele et al., 2005; Jobic et al., 2007). Secondly, mannitol is supposed to act as an antioxidant agent and protect fungal cells by quenching reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by hosts in response to attack. Polyols can thus be powerful radical scavengers in vitro (Smirnoff and Cumbes, 1989; Voegele et al., 2005) and in vivo (Shen et al., 1997a,b). In the animal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, a mannitol low-producing mutant was hyper-susceptible to oxidative killing by normal human neutrophils and by cell-free oxidants, and was hypovirulent in mice (Chaturvedi et al., 1996a,b).www.frontiersin.orgMay 2013 | Volume 4 | Article 131 |Calmes et al.Role of mannitol metabolism in fungal pathogenicityMoreover, transgenic tobacco lines constitutively expressin.