Osets and humans, although we can only speculate on the cause

Osets and humans, although we can only speculate on the cause of the difference. First, intestinal parasite infections may affect the Th1/Th2 balance by regulating expression of genes encoding cytokines [26?8]. In particular, protozoan parasites are potent stimulators of IFN-c expression and Th1 responses [29]. Moreover, TA02 supplier humans living in poor hygienic conditions in develop-ing countries had higher Th1 cytokine levels compared with people in developed countries [30]. Although the JI-101 common marmosets used in this study were maintained in specific pathogen-free conditions, we cannot rule out that such infectious agents may be one of a number of factors responsible for the difference in Th1/Th2 balance. A second possible reason may be a difference in the number of cells producing the respective cytokines. As shown in Figure 6, the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells were markedly different in 23727046 total leukocytes from common marmosets and humans. Since IL-4 is mainly produced by CD4+ T cells [31,32], its expression level may be influenced by the CD4:CD8 ratio. However, this is not true for all the cytokines tested. For example, the expression levels of IL-2, IL-5 and IL-13, largely produced by T cells, were not significantly different between common marmosets and humans. Therefore, we suggest that the CD4:CD8 ratio has little effect on Th1/Th2 balance. IL-10 is produced by T cells and monocytes [33] and IL12b is naturally produced by dendritic cells and macrophages [34,35]. However, we could not verify these cell numbers in the common marmoset. Further studies are required to determine whether the numbers of cytokine-producing cells influence the expression levels of IL-10 and IL-12b. Another possibility is genetic variation. Bostik et al., reported distinct sequence differences in the promoter region or the proximal region of cytokine genes including IL-4, IL-10, IL-12b and TNF-c among humans, macaque and mangabey monkeys, which affected regulation of cytokine synthesis [36]. Jeong et al., reported that the expression level of IL-4 was lower in monkeys (baboon and macaque) than in hominoids (human and chimpanzee) while the expression levels of IL-12b and the IFN-c were higher in monkeys [37]. It is likely that Th1 dominant expression is common to primates other than hominoids and the difference in Th1/Th2 balance may be caused by genetic differences between common marmosets and humans. The use of common marmoset is growing in popularity as a non-human primate model in many fields including autoimmune disease and infectious disease. In this study, we presented data regarding gene expression stabilities of common marmoset housekeeping genes and differences in the Th1/Th2 balance between common marmosets and humans. This difference may affect host defense and/or disease susceptibility, which should be carefully considered in biomedical research using common marmoset as an experimental model. We believe our data will contribute to future investigations using common marmoset models of various diseases.AcknowledgmentsWe would like to acknowledge the efforts of Yasushi Ami in animal experiments. We also thank Ms. Hiro Yamada for technical assistance.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: YF TM K. Kitaura TS YH IK RS. Performed the experiments: YF K. Kitaura KS SS TT YK ST HK. Analyzed the data: YF RS. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: K. Kumagai KS. Wrote the paper: TM K. Kitaura TS YH IK RS.
Effect of Stent Inflation Pressure a.Osets and humans, although we can only speculate on the cause of the difference. First, intestinal parasite infections may affect the Th1/Th2 balance by regulating expression of genes encoding cytokines [26?8]. In particular, protozoan parasites are potent stimulators of IFN-c expression and Th1 responses [29]. Moreover, humans living in poor hygienic conditions in develop-ing countries had higher Th1 cytokine levels compared with people in developed countries [30]. Although the common marmosets used in this study were maintained in specific pathogen-free conditions, we cannot rule out that such infectious agents may be one of a number of factors responsible for the difference in Th1/Th2 balance. A second possible reason may be a difference in the number of cells producing the respective cytokines. As shown in Figure 6, the ratio of CD4+ to CD8+ cells were markedly different in 23727046 total leukocytes from common marmosets and humans. Since IL-4 is mainly produced by CD4+ T cells [31,32], its expression level may be influenced by the CD4:CD8 ratio. However, this is not true for all the cytokines tested. For example, the expression levels of IL-2, IL-5 and IL-13, largely produced by T cells, were not significantly different between common marmosets and humans. Therefore, we suggest that the CD4:CD8 ratio has little effect on Th1/Th2 balance. IL-10 is produced by T cells and monocytes [33] and IL12b is naturally produced by dendritic cells and macrophages [34,35]. However, we could not verify these cell numbers in the common marmoset. Further studies are required to determine whether the numbers of cytokine-producing cells influence the expression levels of IL-10 and IL-12b. Another possibility is genetic variation. Bostik et al., reported distinct sequence differences in the promoter region or the proximal region of cytokine genes including IL-4, IL-10, IL-12b and TNF-c among humans, macaque and mangabey monkeys, which affected regulation of cytokine synthesis [36]. Jeong et al., reported that the expression level of IL-4 was lower in monkeys (baboon and macaque) than in hominoids (human and chimpanzee) while the expression levels of IL-12b and the IFN-c were higher in monkeys [37]. It is likely that Th1 dominant expression is common to primates other than hominoids and the difference in Th1/Th2 balance may be caused by genetic differences between common marmosets and humans. The use of common marmoset is growing in popularity as a non-human primate model in many fields including autoimmune disease and infectious disease. In this study, we presented data regarding gene expression stabilities of common marmoset housekeeping genes and differences in the Th1/Th2 balance between common marmosets and humans. This difference may affect host defense and/or disease susceptibility, which should be carefully considered in biomedical research using common marmoset as an experimental model. We believe our data will contribute to future investigations using common marmoset models of various diseases.AcknowledgmentsWe would like to acknowledge the efforts of Yasushi Ami in animal experiments. We also thank Ms. Hiro Yamada for technical assistance.Author ContributionsConceived and designed the experiments: YF TM K. Kitaura TS YH IK RS. Performed the experiments: YF K. Kitaura KS SS TT YK ST HK. Analyzed the data: YF RS. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: K. Kumagai KS. Wrote the paper: TM K. Kitaura TS YH IK RS.
Effect of Stent Inflation Pressure a.